Chapter 14 — Formal Written Style: である and Beyond

Up to this point, you have used two copula forms: だ (plain) and です (polite). You know that だ appears in plain-form sentences, casual speech, and subordinate clauses, while です appears in polite conversation and polite writing. But there is a third form that you have likely already encountered in reading: である.

である is the assertive copula of formal written Japanese. It appears in newspaper editorials, academic papers, essays, government documents, and any prose that aims for authority and objectivity. It is not polite — it carries no deference toward the reader. It is not casual — it carries no familiarity. It is simply declarative: this is how things are.

This chapter teaches you to read and eventually write in である style. We also expand into several formal written patterns that cluster around this register: hedged assertions, tendency expressions, and nominalization-heavy prose. These patterns form the backbone of the written Japanese you will encounter in newspapers, textbooks, and official publications.

14.1 である — The Assertive Copula

Formation

である replaces だ at the end of a sentence. It attaches to the same positions だ does.

教育は社会の基盤である。 "Education is the foundation of society."

この問題は非常に複雑である。 "This problem is extremely complex."

日本は島国である。 "Japan is an island nation."

When to use it

である appears in:

• Newspaper editorials and opinion columns
• Academic papers and textbooks
• Legal documents and government publications
• Formal essays (including exam essays such as the JLPT)
• Encyclopedia entries and reference works

である does not appear in:

• Everyday conversation (it would sound extremely stiff)
• Polite letters or emails (use です/ます)
• Casual writing like personal blogs or text messages (use だ)

である vs だ vs です

A critical point: である is not "more polite" than です. It is a different axis entirely. です shows politeness toward the listener. である shows formality of the text type. An academic paper uses である not because it respects the reader more, but because academic prose is expected to be impersonal and declarative.

である as a modifier: ～である + noun

Just as だ sometimes appears before nouns in the form な (for な-adjectives), である can appear before nouns directly.

必要であるもの → things that are necessary 問題であること → the fact that it is a problem

This is the same structure as な-adjectives: 必要なもの and 必要であるもの are equivalent, but the latter is more formal and explicit.

14.2 ではない, であった, ではなかった

The full conjugation paradigm of である parallels that of だ.

Negative: ではない

この結果は偶然ではない。 "This result is not coincidental."

成功の原因は一つではない。 "The cause of success is not just one thing."

ではない corresponds to じゃない in casual speech and ではありません in polite speech. In formal writing, ではない is standard.

Past: であった

かつて、この地域は農業の中心地であった。 "This region was once the center of agriculture."

それは予想外の結果であった。 "It was an unexpected result."

であった corresponds to だった in casual speech. It gives a historical, authoritative tone.

Past negative: ではなかった

当時の技術では、それは可能ではなかった。 "With the technology of the time, that was not possible."

彼の判断は間違いではなかった。 "His judgment was not a mistake."

Full paradigm

Note that the negative forms of である and the formal だ system overlap: ではない serves both. The distinctive forms are the affirmative である and the past であった.

Sentence-ending variations

In formal writing, you may also encounter:

～であろう — "it is probably..." (formal conjecture, equivalent to だろう) この傾向は今後も続くであろう。 "This trend will likely continue in the future as well."

～であるが — "it is..., but" (formal concessive) 経済は回復傾向にあるが、課題は多いのである。

～のである — emphatic explanation (formal equivalent of のだ) つまり、問題は資金不足なのである。 "In other words, the problem is insufficient funding."

14.3 において / における — Formal Locative (Extended Context)

You first encountered において and における in Chapter 5 as formal equivalents of で (location/context). Here we revisit them in the context of full である-style writing, where they appear constantly.

において — "in, at" (formal で)

日本において、高齢化は深刻な問題である。 "In Japan, aging is a serious problem."

現代社会において、情報の重要性はますます高まっている。 "In modern society, the importance of information is increasing ever more."

において marks the setting — physical, temporal, or abstract — in which something occurs. It replaces で but carries more weight and formality.

における — modifier form ("in" modifying a noun)

日本における高齢化の問題 "the problem of aging in Japan"

教育における技術の役割 "the role of technology in education"

における is the pre-noun form: it modifies the following noun. This is one of the most common structures in academic and journalistic Japanese.

において vs で — When to choose which

In である-style writing, において is the default for context-setting. Using で is not wrong, but it feels less formal and may break the register consistency.

✓ この分野において、日本は世界をリードしている。 (Matches である register) △ この分野で、日本は世界をリードしている。 (Grammatically fine, but less formal)

In です/ます writing or conversation, において sounds overly stiff. Match your particles to your copula.

14.4 と考えられる, と言える, と思われる — Hedged Assertions

Formal Japanese writing avoids strong, direct claims. Instead of saying "X is Y," writers often say "X can be considered Y" or "it can be said that X is Y." These hedged forms are essential to the register.

と考えられる — "it is thought that, it is considered that"

この結果は、環境の変化が原因であると考えられる。 "It is considered that the cause of this result is environmental change."

高齢化が進む中、介護の需要は今後さらに増加すると考えられる。 "As aging progresses, demand for care is thought to further increase in the future."

と考えられる is the passive of 考える (一段, to consider). The passive form removes the agent: no one specific is doing the considering. It is a general, impersonal judgment.

と言える — "it can be said that"

この実験は成功であったと言える。 "It can be said that this experiment was a success."

日本語の敬語は世界的に見ても複雑であると言えるだろう。 "It can probably be said that Japanese keigo is complex even from a global perspective."

と言える uses the potential form of 言う (五段, to say). It means the claim is supportable — "one can reasonably say this." Adding だろう softens it further.

と思われる — "it seems that, it is thought that"

原因は複数あると思われる。 "It seems that there are multiple causes."

この制度は改善の余地があると思われる。 "It is thought that this system has room for improvement."

と思われる is the passive of 思う (五段, to think). Like と考えられる, it is impersonal. The distinction is subtle: 考えられる implies more deliberate analysis, while 思われる is closer to "it seems" or "one gets the impression."

Comparison

In formal writing, using ～である for everything would sound dogmatic. Writers strategically mix strong assertions with hedged forms, using the strongest form for established facts and weaker forms for interpretations or predictions.

14.5 ～傾向がある — "There Is a Tendency to"

傾向 (けいこう, tendency) is a noun. The pattern ～傾向がある means "there is a tendency for X to happen."

Formation

Examples

最近、若者の読書量が減る傾向がある。 "Recently, there is a tendency for the amount young people read to decrease."

都市部では地価が上がる傾向がある。 "In urban areas, there is a tendency for land prices to rise."

高齢者は保守的になる傾向がある。 "There is a tendency for elderly people to become conservative."

Variations

～傾向にある — same meaning, slightly more formal 出生率は低下する傾向にある。 "The birth rate is in a declining trend."

～傾向が見られる — "a tendency is observed" (academic) この地域では人口減少の傾向が見られる。 "A tendency toward population decline is observed in this region."

14.6 ～とは限らない — "Not Necessarily the Case"

This pattern denies the universality of a claim. It means "it is not necessarily true that..." or "just because A, it does not mean B."

Formation

Plain form + とは限らない.

高いものがいいとは限らない。 "Expensive things are not necessarily good."

努力すれば成功するとは限らない。 "It is not necessarily the case that if you make an effort, you will succeed."

多数派の意見が正しいとは限らない。 "The majority opinion is not necessarily correct."

With nouns and な-adjectives

Nouns and な-adjectives take だ before とは限らない — but in formal writing, this becomes であるとは限らない.

大学を出た人が優秀であるとは限らない。 "People who graduated from university are not necessarily excellent."

有名なレストランがおいしいとは限らない。 "Famous restaurants are not necessarily delicious."

Nuance

～とは限らない does not deny the claim outright. It says: "This might be true in many cases, but not always." It is a partial denial, not a total one. Compare:

This makes ～とは限らない especially useful in argumentative writing, where the author wants to challenge a common assumption without making an equally extreme counterclaim.

14.7 ～に過ぎない — "Nothing More Than"

に過ぎない reduces the importance of something. It says: "This is merely X, nothing more."

Formation

Examples

これは私の個人的な意見に過ぎない。 "This is nothing more than my personal opinion."

現在の成果は第一歩に過ぎない。 "The current results are nothing more than a first step."

彼の説明は言い訳に過ぎなかった。 "His explanation was nothing more than an excuse."

まだ全体の十パーセントが終わったに過ぎない。 "Only ten percent of the total has been completed — nothing more."

Nuance

に過ぎない is inherently dismissive. The speaker or writer is saying: "Don't overvalue this. It is just X." It is common in:

• Academic writing (downplaying one's own results or preliminary findings)
• Argumentative writing (dismissing an opponent's point)
• Self-deprecating statements

14.8 Nominalization-Heavy Prose — Light Verbs and Unpacking Complex Sentences

Formal written Japanese uses a distinctive sentence structure that can be difficult for learners to parse. The main content of the sentence is packed into a nominalized clause, and the final verb is a "light verb" — a verb that carries little meaning on its own but completes the sentence grammatically.

Light verbs

A light verb is a common, simple verb used with a noun to create a verbal expression. The noun carries the meaning; the verb just makes it into a predicate.

Why formal Japanese uses these

In formal writing, 検討を行う is preferred over 検討する because:

1. It sounds more deliberate and weighty.
2. The noun 検討 can be modified extensively before を行う appears.
3. It allows inserting adverbs or particles between the noun and the verb.

今後の方針について十分な検討を行う必要がある。 "It is necessary to conduct sufficient examination regarding future policy."

Compare the simpler version:

今後の方針を十分に検討する必要がある。

Both are grammatically correct, but the first is more characteristic of formal written style.

Unpacking nominalized sentences

In formal prose, you will frequently encounter sentences where the subject is a long nominalized clause. The strategy for reading these is:

1. Find the final predicate. This tells you what the sentence is about.
2. Find the main noun. This is usually just before a particle like が, は, or を near the end.
3. Work backward. Everything before that noun is modifying it.

Consider this sentence:

近年、高齢化が急速に進んでいることが日本社会に大きな影響を与えている。

Step 1: Final predicate = 与えている (is giving/having an effect) Step 2: Main structure = [Something]が [something]に 影響を与えている Step 3: Subject = 高齢化が急速に進んでいること (the fact that aging is rapidly progressing) Step 4: Full parse = "The fact that aging is rapidly progressing is having a large impact on Japanese society in recent years."

Practice parsing

Try this sentence:

政府が新しい教育政策を導入したことに対して、さまざまな意見が出ている。

Step 1: Final predicate = 出ている (are coming out) Step 2: Main structure = 意見が出ている (opinions are coming out) Step 3: に対して connects to the nominalized clause: 政府が新しい教育政策を導入したこと (the fact that the government introduced new education policy) Step 4: "Regarding the fact that the government introduced new education policy, various opinions are emerging."

The key skill is recognizing that こと and の turn entire clauses into nouns, and that everything before them is a single package.

Common light verb patterns to memorize

The following expressions appear constantly in formal prose. Learning them as set phrases will dramatically improve your reading speed:

When you encounter one of these in a text, mentally substitute the simpler equivalent. This helps you parse the sentence quickly. Over time, the formal versions will become natural.

Recognizing nominalization-heavy sentences

Here is a practical test: if you see a sentence in formal Japanese that feels impossibly long, look for こと, の, or a noun directly before が, は, or を near the end. That noun (or nominalized clause) is likely the grammatical subject or object. Everything before it is modification. Once you find the main noun and the final predicate, the sentence structure becomes clear.

14.9 Reading Passage — Newspaper Editorial in である Style

近年、日本の労働市場は大きく変化している。かつて、一つの会社に定年まで勤めることが一般的であった。終身雇用と年功序列は、日本型経営の特徴であり、多くの労働者にとって安定した生活の基盤であった。

しかし、現在ではこの仕組みが崩れつつある。グローバル化や技術革新の影響により、企業は柔軟な人材を求めるようになった。即戦力となる人材が重視され、中途採用の割合も年々増加している。その結果、転職がかつてほど否定的に見られなくなり、むしろ積極的にキャリアを変えることが評価される傾向にある。

一方で、この変化が全ての労働者にとって好ましいとは限らない。安定した雇用を失うことは、特に中高年の労働者にとって大きな不安の原因となる。新しい技術を学び直す機会が十分に提供されていないという指摘もある。柔軟性が求められる社会において、全ての人がその変化に対応できるわけではないのである。

今後の課題は、変化を受け入れつつも、労働者の生活を守る仕組みを構築することであろう。再教育の支援や転職支援の充実が求められている。それは単なる制度の問題に過ぎないのではなく、社会全体の価値観に関わる問題である。

Translation:

In recent years, Japan's labor market has been changing significantly. In the past, it was common to work at a single company until retirement age. Lifetime employment and seniority-based systems were characteristics of Japanese-style management, and were the foundation of a stable life for many workers.

However, this framework is currently in the process of crumbling. Due to the effects of globalization and technological innovation, companies have come to seek flexible human resources. People who can be immediately effective are valued, and the proportion of mid-career hiring is increasing year by year. As a result, changing jobs is no longer viewed as negatively as it once was, and there is in fact a tendency for actively changing one's career to be valued.

On the other hand, it is not necessarily the case that this change is favorable for all workers. Losing stable employment becomes a major source of anxiety, especially for middle-aged and older workers. There are also criticisms that opportunities to relearn new skills are not being sufficiently provided. In a society where flexibility is demanded, not everyone is able to adapt to that change.

The challenge for the future will likely be building a framework that protects workers' lives while accepting change. Support for re-education and the enhancement of career-change support are being called for. This is not merely a matter of institutional systems — it is a problem that concerns the values of society as a whole.

Style Notes

Notice the following features of this passage:

1. である and であった appear throughout as the main copula.
2. において sets the formal context ("in a society where...").
3. とは限らない introduces the partial denial in paragraph 3.
4. ～傾向にある describes the trend in paragraph 2.
5. ～わけではない provides nuanced denial ("it's not that everyone can...").
6. ～に過ぎない appears in the final paragraph to downplay one aspect.
7. であろう provides formal conjecture.
8. Discourse connectors (しかし, その結果, 一方で) structure the argument.

14.10 Vocabulary List