Chapter 13 — Conjunctions and Discourse Connectors

When you read a single sentence in Japanese, grammar and particles carry the meaning. But when you read a paragraph — or a full article — something else carries the structure: discourse connectors. These are the words that appear at the beginning of sentences or clauses to tell you the relationship between what came before and what comes next. Is the writer adding a point? Contradicting the previous sentence? Summarizing everything said so far? Shifting to a new topic entirely?

In English, words like "however," "moreover," "therefore," and "in short" serve this function. Japanese has an equally rich system. Many of these connectors sit at the boundary between spoken and written Japanese. Some are neutral and appear everywhere; others are strongly formal or strongly casual. Knowing them transforms your reading ability, because they act as signposts: even if you cannot understand every word in a passage, the connectors tell you the shape of the argument.

This chapter organizes Japanese discourse connectors by function. By the end, you will be able to use them as anchors for reading comprehension — and begin using them in your own writing and speaking.

13.1 Addition: それに, その上, しかも, おまけに

These connectors signal that the next sentence adds information to what was just said. The new point goes in the same direction — supporting, reinforcing, or piling on.

それに — "moreover, besides, on top of that"

This is the most common and neutral additive connector. It works in both spoken and written Japanese and at all formality levels.

この店は安い。それに、おいしい。 "This shop is cheap. Moreover, it's delicious."

田中さんは英語が話せる。それに、フランス語もできる。 "Tanaka can speak English. On top of that, she can also do French."

それに simply tells the listener: "Here is another point in the same direction." It does not emphasize or intensify — it just adds.

その上 — "furthermore, what's more"

その上 is slightly more formal than それに and carries a stronger sense of accumulation. It suggests that the additional point is significant.

今日は残業があった。その上、電車が遅れた。 "Today I had overtime. On top of that, the train was delayed."

この大学は授業料が安い。その上、奨学金の制度も充実している。 "This university has low tuition. Furthermore, its scholarship system is also well-developed."

その上 can be used for both positive and negative accumulation, but it often appears in contexts where things are piling up — good news getting better, or bad news getting worse.

しかも — "moreover, and what's more"

しかも has a stronger emphatic force than それに or その上. It signals that the additional information is surprising or particularly noteworthy.

あの映画は三時間もあった。しかも、字幕がなかった。 "That movie was three whole hours long. What's more, there were no subtitles."

田中さんは五か国語が話せる。しかも、全部独学で覚えたそうだ。 "Tanaka can speak five languages. And what's more, she apparently learned them all self-taught."

The nuance of しかも is: "You might think the previous point was already noteworthy — but wait, there's more." It often appears in both spoken and written Japanese.

おまけに — "on top of that, to make matters worse/better"

おまけに is the most colloquial of the four. The word おまけ means "bonus" or "extra" (like the free toy that comes with a children's meal). As a connector, it signals one final addition that tips the scale.

今日は寝坊した。バスに乗り遅れた。おまけに、傘も忘れた。 "Today I overslept. I missed the bus. And on top of all that, I forgot my umbrella too."

旅行は楽しかった。天気もよかったし、おまけに、ホテルが無料でアップグレードしてくれた。 "The trip was fun. The weather was good, and on top of it all, the hotel upgraded us for free."

おまけに frequently appears when listing a chain of unfortunate events, but it can also be used for positive chains. It has a slightly dramatic, storytelling quality.

Comparison

13.2 Contrast: しかし, ところが, それにしても, 一方(で), 逆に

Contrastive connectors signal that the next sentence goes against the direction of the previous one — or presents an opposing perspective.

しかし — "however, but"

しかし is the standard contrastive connector in written Japanese. It is clean, neutral, and extremely common in essays, articles, and formal speech.

日本語の文法はそれほど複雑ではない。しかし、漢字の数は非常に多い。 "Japanese grammar is not that complex. However, the number of kanji is extremely large."

この計画には利点がある。しかし、問題点もある。 "This plan has advantages. However, there are also problems."

In conversation, しかし can sound stiff. Speakers more often use でも or けど. But in writing, しかし is the default.

You encountered しかし briefly in Stage 2 when studying opinions. Here we place it within the full system of contrastive connectors.

ところが — "but then, unexpectedly"

ところが signals not just contrast but surprise. The speaker expected one outcome, and something different happened.

天気予報は晴れだった。ところが、午後から急に雨が降り出した。 "The weather forecast said clear skies. But then, from the afternoon, it suddenly started raining."

試験は難しいだろうと思っていた。ところが、意外に簡単だった。 "I thought the exam would be difficult. But as it turned out, it was unexpectedly easy."

The key distinction: しかし presents a logical contrast (A is true, but B is also true). ところが presents a narrative surprise (I expected A, but B happened instead). This makes ところが especially common in storytelling and personal accounts.

それにしても — "even so, nevertheless, still"

それにしても acknowledges the previous point but insists that the current observation holds despite it.

忙しかったのはわかる。それにしても、連絡ぐらいはできたはずだ。 "I understand you were busy. Even so, you should have been able to at least get in touch."

冬は寒いのは当然だ。それにしても、今年は寒すぎる。 "It's natural for winter to be cold. Even so, this year is too cold."

それにしても has a slightly emotional edge. It often appears when the speaker is expressing frustration, disbelief, or insistence.

一方(で) — "on the other hand, meanwhile"

一方 (or 一方で) presents a parallel or contrasting perspective without implying that one side is right and the other wrong. It is balanced and objective.

都市部では人口が増えている。一方、地方では人口が減り続けている。 "In urban areas, the population is increasing. On the other hand, in rural areas, the population continues to decline."

テレビの視聴率は下がっている。一方で、動画配信サービスの利用者は増えている。 "TV viewership is declining. Meanwhile, users of video streaming services are increasing."

一方(で) is particularly common in expository writing — newspaper articles, reports, academic papers — where the writer is presenting two sides of a situation.

逆に — "conversely, on the contrary"

逆に signals a direct reversal: the next statement is the opposite of the previous one.

運動すると疲れると思う人がいる。逆に、運動したほうが元気になるという人もいる。 "Some people think exercise makes you tired. Conversely, there are also people who say exercising makes you feel more energetic."

値段を上げたら売れなくなると考えていた。逆に、高くしたほうがよく売れた。 "I thought raising the price would stop sales. On the contrary, making it more expensive actually sold better."

Comparison

13.3 Cause and Result: そのため(に), したがって, その結果

These connectors signal that the next sentence is a consequence of the previous one.

そのため(に) — "for that reason, because of that"

そのために (or そのため without に) is the most versatile causal connector. It works in both spoken and written Japanese, though it leans slightly formal.

昨夜は遅くまで勉強した。そのため、今日はとても眠い。 "Last night I studied until late. For that reason, I'm very sleepy today."

人口が減少している。そのために、働き手が不足している地域がある。 "The population is declining. Because of that, there are regions with a shortage of workers."

そのため points backward: "the thing I just told you is the reason for what I am about to say." It is neutral in register and safe in nearly any context.

したがって — "therefore, consequently"

したがって is formal. It belongs to written Japanese, academic prose, and official explanations. You will rarely hear it in daily conversation.

この薬には強い副作用がある。したがって、医師の指示なしに服用してはならない。 "This medicine has strong side effects. Therefore, it must not be taken without a doctor's instructions."

データは十分に集まらなかった。したがって、結論を出すのは時期尚早である。 "Sufficient data was not collected. Consequently, it is premature to draw a conclusion."

Note how したがって naturally pairs with formal endings like てはならない and である. This connector signals that you are in formal territory.

その結果 — "as a result"

その結果 focuses specifically on the outcome. It often appears after a description of a process, experiment, or sequence of events.

三か月間毎日日本語を練習した。その結果、日本語能力試験に合格することができた。 "I practiced Japanese every day for three months. As a result, I was able to pass the JLPT."

新しい交通ルールが導入された。その結果、事故の件数が大幅に減った。 "New traffic rules were introduced. As a result, the number of accidents decreased significantly."

Comparison

13.4 Topic Shift: ところで, それはそうと, さて

These connectors signal that the speaker or writer is changing the subject.

ところで — "by the way"

ところで is the most common topic-shift connector. It cleanly breaks from the current topic and introduces something new.

会議の件は了解しました。ところで、来週の出張のことなんですが…… "Understood about the meeting. By the way, about next week's business trip..."

最近忙しくて大変だよ。ところで、週末は暇？ "I've been really busy lately. By the way, are you free this weekend?"

ところで works in both formal and casual registers. The topic it introduces typically has no logical connection to the preceding topic — that is precisely the point.

それはそうと — "that aside, setting that aside"

それはそうと acknowledges the current topic ("that is as it is") and then pivots. It is slightly more casual than ところで.

テスト、難しかったね。それはそうと、夏休みの予定はもう決めた？ "The test was hard, wasn't it? That aside, have you already decided your summer vacation plans?"

それはそうと appears primarily in conversation. In writing, it is rare.

さて — "now then, well"

さて signals a transition, often to the main point or a new section. It is extremely common in speeches, lectures, presentations, and written essays as a section-opener.

みなさん、おはようございます。さて、今日の授業を始めましょう。 "Good morning, everyone. Now then, let's begin today's lesson."

前回は日本の教育制度について話しました。さて、今回は日本の労働文化を見ていきましょう。 "Last time we talked about the Japanese education system. Now then, this time let's look at Japanese work culture."

さて is a bridge: it closes the previous section and opens the next. In writing, it often appears at the start of a new paragraph.

13.5 Summary: 要するに, つまり, 結局, 以上

Summary connectors tell the reader or listener: "I am now condensing what was said into its essence."

要するに — "in short, to put it simply"

要するに announces a simplified restatement. It can signal impatience ("let me cut to the point") or helpfulness ("let me make this clearer").

彼の説明は長かったが、要するに、予算が足りないということだ。 "His explanation was long, but in short, it means the budget isn't enough."

いろいろ問題があるが、要するに、準備不足だったのだ。 "There are various problems, but in short, we were underprepared."

要するに is neutral in register and works in both conversation and writing. It is especially useful in meetings and discussions.

つまり — "in other words, that is to say"

つまり restates or clarifies the previous point. Where 要するに simplifies, つまり paraphrases for precision.

明日は祝日だ。つまり、学校は休みだ。 "Tomorrow is a national holiday. In other words, school is closed."

彼女は社長の娘だ。つまり、将来この会社を継ぐかもしれない。 "She is the president's daughter. That is to say, she might take over this company in the future."

つまり often draws a logical inference: given A, it follows that B. It is extremely common in both spoken and written Japanese.

結局 — "in the end, after all, ultimately"

結局 signals the final outcome after a process of deliberation, uncertainty, or events.

いろいろ考えたが、結局、転職することにした。 "I thought about it a lot, but in the end, I decided to change jobs."

天気予報は晴れだったが、結局、一日中雨だった。 "The forecast said clear, but in the end, it rained all day."

結局 often carries a sense of resignation or inevitability: things turned out this way despite everything. It can also appear mid-sentence as an adverb.

以上 — "that is all, that concludes"

以上 closes a section, a speech, or a list. It is formal and definitive.

報告は以上です。何か質問はありますか。 "That concludes my report. Are there any questions?"

以上の理由から、この計画には反対です。 "For the reasons stated above, I am opposed to this plan."

Note that 以上の in the second example functions as a modifier: "the above-mentioned reasons." This use is very common in formal writing.

13.6 Qualification: ただし, もっとも, なお

Qualification connectors add a condition, exception, or supplementary note to what was just said.

ただし — "however, provided that"

ただし introduces a condition or exception. It narrows or restricts the previous statement.

参加は無料です。ただし、事前に申し込みが必要です。 "Participation is free. However, advance registration is required."

この薬は一日三回飲んでください。ただし、空腹時は避けてください。 "Please take this medicine three times a day. However, avoid taking it on an empty stomach."

ただし is common in rules, instructions, announcements, and contracts. It tells the reader: "The previous statement is true, but here is an important exception."

もっとも — "though, to be fair, having said that"

もっとも softens or partially retracts what was just said. It adds a balancing counterpoint without fully reversing the original statement.

彼は仕事ができる人だ。もっとも、人付き合いはあまり上手ではないが。 "He's a competent worker. Though, to be fair, he's not very good at dealing with people."

今年の冬は暖かい。もっとも、東北地方はかなり寒いようだが。 "This winter has been warm. Having said that, the Tohoku region apparently has been quite cold."

もっとも has an honest, self-correcting quality. The speaker brings up a point that complicates their own statement.

なお — "furthermore, in addition, please note"

なお adds supplementary information — usually something the reader needs to know but that is not the main point. It is formal and common in written notices, announcements, and academic papers.

申し込みの締め切りは三月三十一日です。なお、定員に達し次第、受付を終了します。 "The application deadline is March 31. Please note that registration will close as soon as capacity is reached."

この調査は二〇二四年に実施された。なお、調査対象は二十歳以上の男女一千人である。 "This survey was conducted in 2024. Additionally, the survey subjects were 1,000 men and women aged 20 and over."

なお is not casual. It appears in official documents, footnotes, and formal presentations. Think of it as the written equivalent of "please also note that..."

13.7 How Connectors Signal Text Structure — Reading Comprehension Anchors

Now that you know the individual connectors, let us discuss how they function together to reveal the structure of a text.

Connectors as signposts

When you encounter a Japanese passage — an article, essay, or report — the connectors are the first things you should look for. Even before you understand every word, the connectors tell you the shape of the argument.

Consider this skeleton of a passage (connectors only):

[Statement]. しかし、[...]. その上、[...]. そのため、[...]. ただし、[...].

Even without content, you can see the structure:

1. A claim is made.
2. A contrasting point is raised (しかし).
3. An additional contrasting point is added (その上).
4. A consequence is drawn (そのため).
5. A qualification is added (ただし).

This is a common pattern in opinion writing: claim → counterpoint → consequence → exception.

Reading strategy: connector-first scanning

When facing a difficult passage, try this approach:

1. Scan for connectors. Circle or underline every しかし, そのため, つまり, ところが, 一方, and so on.
2. Map the structure. What is the relationship between each pair of sentences? Addition? Contrast? Cause?
3. Identify the conclusion. Look for 結局, 要するに, つまり, したがって, or 以上 — these mark the writer's main point.
4. Read for detail. Now go back and read the full sentences, using the structural map as a guide.

Common patterns in Japanese expository writing

Connectors and register

Remember that certain connectors belong to specific registers:

When you are writing, choose connectors that match your register. Mixing したがって with おまけに in the same paragraph would sound jarring.

13.8 Reading Passage — Opinion Piece with Heavy Connector Use

Read the following opinion piece and pay attention to the discourse connectors. They have been set in bold-equivalent notation with【】brackets for easy identification.

最近、リモートワークを導入する会社が増えている。通勤時間がなくなるので、自由に使える時間が増える。【それに】、自分のペースで仕事ができるという利点もある。【しかも】、オフィスの維持費を減らせるため、会社にとってもメリットがある。

【しかし】、リモートワークには問題もある。まず、同僚とのコミュニケーションが減りやすい。【その上】、仕事とプライベートの境界があいまいになって、長時間働いてしまう人もいる。【一方で】、自宅に十分な仕事環境がない人にとっては、集中しにくいという声もある。

【そのため】、最近では「ハイブリッド勤務」という形が注目されている。【つまり】、週に何日かはオフィスに出勤し、残りの日は自宅で働くというやり方である。この方法なら、リモートワークの利点を生かしつつ、コミュニケーション不足の問題も解決できる。

【もっとも】、ハイブリッド勤務にも課題はある。出勤する日と在宅の日の管理が複雑になるし、会議の調整も難しくなる。【ただし】、多くの調査によると、従業員の満足度はハイブリッド勤務が最も高いという結果が出ている。

【結局】、どの働き方が一番いいかは、会社や個人の状況によって異なる。大切なのは、それぞれの利点と問題点を理解した上で、自分に合った方法を選ぶことだろう。

Translation:

Recently, the number of companies introducing remote work has been increasing. Because commuting time disappears, the amount of freely usable time increases. Moreover, there is also the advantage of being able to work at one's own pace. What's more, since office maintenance costs can be reduced, there are benefits for companies as well.

However, remote work also has problems. First, communication with colleagues tends to decrease. On top of that, the boundary between work and private life becomes vague, and some people end up working long hours. On the other hand, for people who don't have a sufficient work environment at home, there are also voices saying it's hard to concentrate.

For that reason, recently a format called "hybrid work" has been attracting attention. In other words, it is a method where you commute to the office several days a week and work from home the remaining days. With this method, you can make use of the advantages of remote work while also solving the problem of insufficient communication.

Having said that, hybrid work also has challenges. Managing office days and work-from-home days becomes complicated, and coordinating meetings also becomes difficult. However, according to many surveys, results show that employee satisfaction is highest with hybrid work.

In the end, which work style is best differs depending on the company and individual circumstances. What is important is probably to understand the advantages and problems of each and choose the method that suits you.

Structure Analysis

Let us map the connectors to see the argument's shape:

1. Paragraph 1 — Benefits of remote work (それに, しかも = addition, building the case)
2. Paragraph 2 — Problems of remote work (しかし = contrast; その上, 一方で = additional problems)
3. Paragraph 3 — Hybrid work as solution (そのため = consequence; つまり = clarification)
4. Paragraph 4 — Qualifications about hybrid work (もっとも, ただし = qualification)
5. Paragraph 5 — Conclusion (結局 = summary)

This is a textbook example of balanced argumentative writing: present one side, present the other, propose a middle ground, add caveats, and conclude.

13.9 Vocabulary List