Chapter 5 — Basis, Range, and Context Particles

Chapter 4 introduced compound particles that mark what a sentence is about — its topic, its target, or its perspective-holder. This chapter covers a second family of compound particles that mark basis, range, and context — that is, they tell the reader what something is based on, what scope it covers, what path it follows, or where it takes place. These particles are the backbone of formal and institutional Japanese. They appear in government documents, corporate reports, university guidelines, news analysis, and any text that deals with policies, plans, and systematic descriptions.

If you plan to read a Japanese newspaper beyond the headlines, or if you need to understand any kind of official document, these seven compound particles are not optional. They are structural necessities.

Like the particles in Chapter 4, each of these has a て-form for use before verb phrases and a prenominal form (usually the dictionary form of the embedded verb) for use before nouns. Learning both forms for each particle is essential.

5.1 に基づいて / に基づく — "Based On"

Formation

Noun + に基づいて (before a verb phrase) Noun + に基づく + Noun / Noun + に基づいた + Noun (prenominal forms)

に基づいて is built from に plus the て-form of 基づく (もとづく, "to be based on, to be grounded in"). It marks the foundation, authority, or source on which an action or judgment rests. When you say Xに基づいて, you are saying "using X as the foundation."

Core Usage

法律に　基づいて　判断する。 "To judge based on the law."

調査の　結果に　基づいて、新しい　対策が　発表された。 "Based on the results of the investigation, new countermeasures were announced."

この　計画は　市民の　意見に　基づいて　作られた。 "This plan was created based on the opinions of citizens."

科学的な　データに　基づいて　議論すべきだ。 "We should debate based on scientific data."

事実に　基づいて　報告してください。 "Please report based on the facts."

Prenominal Forms: に基づく / に基づいた

Both に基づく and に基づいた can modify a noun. に基づく is slightly more formal and written; に基づいた is natural in both speech and writing.

憲法に　基づく　権利を　守らなければならない。 "We must protect the rights based on the constitution."

実験の　データに　基づいた　結論を　出した。 "We reached a conclusion based on the experimental data."

事実に　基づく　報道が　求められている。 "Reporting based on facts is being demanded."

Common Collocations

に基づいて pairs naturally with sources of authority and evidence:

法律に基づいて (based on the law), 契約に基づいて (based on the contract), データに基づいて (based on data), 経験に基づいて (based on experience), 事実に基づいて (based on facts), 研究に基づいて (based on research), 規則に基づいて (based on the rules), 方針に基づいて (based on the policy)

5.2 に応じて / に応じた — "In Accordance With, Depending On"

Formation

Noun + に応じて (before a verb phrase) Noun + に応じた + Noun (prenominal form)

に応じて is built from に plus the て-form of 応じる (おうじる, "to respond to, to comply with"). It means "in accordance with," "depending on," or "in response to." The key idea is adjustment — something changes or is adjusted to match X.

Core Usage

能力に　応じて　給料が　決まる。 "Salary is determined in accordance with ability."

状況に　応じて　対応を　変える　必要がある。 "It is necessary to change the response depending on the situation."

お客様の　ご要望に　応じて、サービスを　提供いたします。 "We provide services in accordance with the customer's requests."

季節に　応じて　メニューが　変わる。 "The menu changes depending on the season."

年齢に　応じて　保険料が　異なる。 "Insurance premiums differ depending on age."

Prenominal Form: に応じた

能力に　応じた　教育を　行う。 "To provide education suited to (each student's) ability."

状況に　応じた　判断が　求められる。 "Judgment in accordance with the situation is called for."

収入に　応じた　生活を　するべきだ。 "One should live a lifestyle suited to one's income."

Key Nuance: Flexible Adjustment

に応じて implies that the result is not fixed — it varies according to the input. This distinguishes it from に基づいて, which implies a fixed foundation. Compare:

法律に　基づいて　処分する。 (Punish based on the law — the law is the fixed authority.) 状況に　応じて　処分する。 (Punish depending on the situation — the punishment varies.)

5.3 に沿って / に沿った — "Along, In Line With"

Formation

Noun + に沿って (before a verb phrase) Noun + に沿った + Noun / Noun + に沿う + Noun (prenominal forms)

に沿って is built from に plus the て-form of 沿う (そう, "to run along, to follow"). Its literal meaning is "along" (a river, a road), and its figurative meaning is "in line with" or "in accordance with" (a plan, a policy, a wish).

Literal Usage: Physical "Along"

川に　沿って　歩いた。 "I walked along the river."

この　道に　沿って　まっすぐ　行くと、駅に　着きます。 "If you go straight along this road, you will reach the station."

海岸に　沿って　ホテルが　並んでいる。 "Hotels are lined up along the coast."

Figurative Usage: "In Line With"

計画に　沿って　工事を　進めている。 "We are proceeding with construction in line with the plan."

方針に　沿って　行動してください。 "Please act in line with the policy."

お客様の　ご希望に　沿って　対応いたします。 "We will respond in accordance with the customer's wishes."

教育課程に　沿って　授業が　行われる。 "Classes are conducted in line with the curriculum."

Prenominal Forms: に沿った / に沿う

方針に　沿った　対応を　お願いします。 "Please provide a response in line with the policy."

ご期待に　沿う　結果を　出せるよう　努力します。 "We will make every effort to produce results that meet your expectations."

に沿って vs に基づいて vs に応じて

These three are sometimes confused. The distinctions:

法律に基づいて処分する。 (The law is the foundation for the punishment.) 状況に応じて処分する。 (The punishment varies depending on the situation.) 方針に沿って処分する。 (The punishment follows the direction set by the policy.)

5.4 にわたって / にわたる — "Spanning, Over a Range Of"

Formation

Noun + にわたって (before a verb phrase) Noun + にわたる + Noun (prenominal form)

にわたって is built from に plus the て-form of わたる (渡る/亘る, "to cross over, to span"). It marks a range or extent — in time, space, or scope. When you say Xにわたって, you are saying "spanning the full range of X" or "over the course of X."

Temporal Range

三年間に　わたって　研究を　続けた。 "I continued research over a period of three years."

長期間に　わたって　交渉が　行われた。 "Negotiations were conducted over a long period."

数か月に　わたって　工事が　続く　予定だ。 "Construction is planned to continue over several months."

Spatial Range

台風の　被害は　広い　範囲に　わたった。 "The typhoon damage spanned a wide area."

火事は　三つの　建物に　わたって　広がった。 "The fire spread across three buildings."

Scope and Extent

この　プロジェクトは　多くの　分野に　わたっている。 "This project spans many fields."

議論は　幅広い　テーマに　わたった。 "The discussion covered a wide range of themes."

Prenominal Form: にわたる

十年に　わたる　調査の　結果が　発表された。 "The results of an investigation spanning ten years were announced."

全国に　わたる　調査を　実施した。 "We conducted a nationwide investigation."

長年に　わたる　努力が　ようやく　実を　結んだ。 "Efforts spanning many years finally bore fruit."

5.5 にかけて — "From X Through Y"

Formation

Noun（から）+ Noun + にかけて (before a verb phrase or at the end of a time/space specification)

にかけて is built from に plus the て-form of かける (掛ける, "to span, to hang over"). It marks a range from one point to another, usually in time or space. It almost always pairs with から to form the pattern XからYにかけて — "from X through Y."

Core Usage

A critical feature of にかけて is that the boundaries are approximate and gradual. Unlike から〜まで (from X to Y, with clear endpoints), にかけて suggests that the phenomenon stretches across the range without sharp boundaries.

今夜から　明日の　朝に　かけて、雨が　降るでしょう。 "Rain will likely fall from tonight through tomorrow morning."

三月から　四月に　かけて、桜が　咲く。 "Cherry blossoms bloom from March through April."

関東から　東海地方に　かけて、強い　地震が　感じられた。 "A strong earthquake was felt from the Kanto region through the Tokai region."

一九八〇年代から　九〇年代に　かけて、日本の　経済は　大きく　変化した。 "From the 1980s through the 1990s, Japan's economy changed greatly."

肩から　腕に　かけて　痛みがある。 "I have pain from my shoulder through my arm."

にかけて vs にわたって

Both mark ranges, but they differ:

三月から四月にかけて桜が咲く。 (From March through April — fuzzy boundary.) 二か月にわたって工事が続いた。 (Over two months — the full span.)

5.6 を通じて / を通して — "Through, Throughout"

Formation

Noun + を通じて (before a verb phrase) Noun + を通して (before a verb phrase)

These two forms are built from を plus 通じて (the て-form of 通じる, "to pass through, to be connected") and を plus 通して (the て-form of 通す, "to let through, to pass through"). They share two meanings: "by means of" (through a medium or method) and "throughout" (across the entirety of a time period).

Meaning 1: By Means Of — "Through (a Medium)"

インターネットを　通じて　情報を　集める。 "To gather information through the internet."

この　活動を　通して、多くのことを　学んだ。 "Through this activity, I learned many things."

友人を　通じて　彼女と　知り合った。 "I got to know her through a friend."

ボランティア活動を　通して、地域の　人たちと　交流した。 "Through volunteer activities, I interacted with people in the community."

翻訳を　通じて、二つの　文化を　つなぐ　仕事を　している。 "I do work connecting two cultures through translation."

Meaning 2: Throughout — "Across the Whole Period"

一年を　通じて　温暖な　気候だ。 "The climate is warm throughout the year."

彼は　生涯を　通して　音楽を　愛した。 "He loved music throughout his life."

この　地域は　四季を　通じて　観光客が　多い。 "This area has many tourists throughout the four seasons."

を通じて vs を通して

The two are largely interchangeable. Subtle tendencies:

• を通じて is slightly more formal and slightly more natural for the "by means of" reading.
• を通して is slightly more concrete and slightly more natural for the "throughout" reading or when the "passing through" image is physical.

In practice, many native speakers use them interchangeably. At this level, learning both forms and understanding that they share the same two meanings is sufficient.

5.7 において / における — "In, At" (Formal Locative)

Formation

Noun + において (before a verb phrase) Noun + における + Noun (prenominal form)

において is built from に plus おいて (the て-form of 置く, おく, "to place"). It is the formal written equivalent of で — it marks the location, field, or context in which something takes place. While で is universal across all registers, において is reserved for formal writing: academic papers, legal documents, news articles, official speeches, and business reports.

Core Usage

日本に　おいて、少子化は　大きな　問題だ。 "In Japan, the declining birthrate is a major issue."

現代社会に　おいて、技術の　進歩は　著しい。 "In modern society, technological progress is remarkable."

この　会議に　おいて、重要な　決定が　行われた。 "At this conference, an important decision was made."

教育の　分野に　おいて、大きな　変化が　起きている。 "In the field of education, major changes are occurring."

国際関係に　おいて、対話は　不可欠だ。 "In international relations, dialogue is indispensable."

Prenominal Form: における

における is extremely common in formal writing. It modifies a noun directly and is one of the hallmarks of written Japanese style.

日本に　おける　英語教育の　現状を　分析する。 "To analyze the current state of English education in Japan."

職場に　おける　ハラスメント対策が　強化された。 "Harassment countermeasures in the workplace have been strengthened."

現代に　おける　家族の　あり方が　変わりつつある。 "The nature of the family in the modern era is changing."

地方に　おける　医療体制の　整備が　課題だ。 "The establishment of a medical care system in rural areas is a challenge."

において vs で

The meaning is the same. The difference is purely register.

Using において in casual conversation sounds stiff and unnatural. Using で in an academic paper is not wrong but may seem insufficiently formal in some contexts.

において with Abstract "Locations"

A key feature of において is that it extends naturally to abstract domains — fields, aspects, situations — more comfortably than で does in formal writing.

精神的な　面に　おいて、彼は　成長した。 "In the mental aspect, he has grown."

安全性に　おいて、この　製品は　優れている。 "In terms of safety, this product is excellent."

5.8 Reading Passage

The following passage is written in the style of a Japanese policy document or institutional report. It uses multiple basis/range/context particles to frame a discussion of educational reform.

　文部科学省の調査に基づいて、教育改革の方向性が示された。調査は全国にわたる二千の学校を対象に、三年間にわたって実施されたものである。この報告書において、現在の教育制度における課題が詳しく分析されている。

　報告書によると、地域の状況に応じた教育プログラムの必要性が強調されている。都市部と地方では、児童が直面する問題が大きく異なるため、全国一律の方針に沿って指導するだけでは不十分だという。春から夏にかけて行われた追加調査でも、同様の傾向が確認された。

　また、一年を通じて英語教育を強化するという提言もなされた。現在の制度においては、英語の授業時間が限られており、国際社会における競争力を高めるためには、授業時間の拡大が必要だとされている。

　この改革案は、科学的なデータに基づく議論を経て、今後の教育政策に反映される予定である。学校現場における教師の意見にも応じた柔軟な対応が求められている。

Translation

Based on a survey by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, the direction of educational reform was indicated. The survey was conducted over a period of three years, targeting two thousand schools spanning the entire country. In this report, challenges in the current educational system are analyzed in detail.

According to the report, the necessity of educational programs suited to local conditions is emphasized. Because the problems that children face differ greatly between urban and rural areas, it is said to be insufficient merely to provide instruction in line with a uniform nationwide policy. In an additional survey conducted from spring through summer, the same tendency was confirmed.

In addition, a recommendation was made to strengthen English education throughout the year. In the current system, English class hours are limited, and in order to raise competitiveness in the international community, it is said that an expansion of class hours is necessary.

This reform proposal is scheduled to be reflected in future educational policy, following discussion based on scientific data. A flexible response that also takes into account the opinions of teachers in school settings is being called for.

5.9 Vocabulary List